Mechanization of Pulse Crops: Engineering Challenges, Technological Advances, and Opportunities for Yield Gap Reduction
Keywords:
Pulse crops, Agricultural mechanization, Precision sowing, Intercultural operations, Mechanical harvesting, Agriculture 4.0,, Yield gap reductionAbstract
Pulses are vital for global food and nutritional security, soil health restoration, and climate-resilient agriculture. Despite India’s leadership in pulse production, substantial yield gaps exist between potential and actual yields. These yield gaps are mainly due to low levels of mechanization, labour scarcity, and limited adoption of precision technologies. This review provides a comprehensive overview of mechanization in pulse cultivation. It covers land preparation, sowing, intercultural operations, harvesting, and threshing. Crop-specific morphological and physiological constraints, such as low pod height, indeterminate growth habit, lodging susceptibility, and pod shattering, are critically examined to explain the limited mechanization compatibility of pulses compared to cereals. The review evaluates conventional and advanced machinery, including conservation tillage implements, mechanical and pneumatic seed metering systems, mechatronic and sensor-assisted planters, mechanical and intelligent weeders, and modified harvesting and threshing systems tailored for pulse crops. Recent advances in Agriculture 4.0, such as vision-based weed control, sensor-driven planters, and precision field operations, are highlighted as transformative pathways for enhancing efficiency, reducing losses, and improving input-use efficiency. The review concludes that closing yield gaps in pulses requires a paradigm shift from generic cereal-based mechanization to crop-specific, scale-neutral, and digitally enabled mechanization strategies, supported by varietal improvement, machinery customization, and inclusive access models.
References
Aechara, K., Jain, S., Kharkwal, S., Shekhawat, P. S., Sharma, M. K., & Sharma, S. S. 2024. Economic Dynamics and Constraints of Chickpea Production in Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Economics and Development, 20(2): 229–236.
Aikins, K. A., Barr, J. B., Ucgul, M., Jensen, T. A., Antille, D. L., & Desbiolles, J. M. A. 2020. No-tillage furrow opener performance: a review of tool geometry, settings and interactions with soil and crop residue. Soil Research, 58(7): 603–621. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR19153
Alba, O. S. 2019. Integrating the organic arsenal for weed control in field pea and lentil. University of Saskatchewan.
Amin, M. N., Hossain, M. A., & Roy, K. C. 2004. Effects of moisture content on some physical properties of lentil seeds. Journal of Food Engineering, 65(1): 83–87.
Asaf, E., Rozenberg, G., Shulner, I., Eizenberg, H., & Lati, R. N. 2023. Evaluation of finger weeder safety and efficacy for intra-row weed removal in irrigated field crops. Weed Research, 63(2): 102–114.
Baeumer, K., & Bakermans, W. A. P. 1974. Zero-Tillage, pp. 77–123.
Behera, A., Raheman, H., & Thomas, E. V. 2021. A comparative study on tillage performance of rota cultivator (a passive – active combination tillage implement) with rotavator (an active tillage implement). Soil and Tillage Research, 207.
Biswas, D. R. 2017. Sustainable Pulse Production: from Less for More. www.isss-india.org
Bloomer, D. J., Harrington, K. C., Ghanizadeh, H., & James, T. K. 2024. Robots and shocks: emerging non-herbicide weed control options for vegetable and arable cropping. In New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, (Vol. 67, Issue 1, pp. 81–103). Taylor and Francis Ltd.
Chaghazardi, H. R., Jahansouz, M. R., Ahmadi, A., & Gorji, M. 2016. Effects of tillage management on productivity of wheat and chickpea under cold, rainfed conditions in western Iran. Soil and Tillage Research, 162: 26–33.
Chandel, N. S., Chandel, A. K., Roul, A. K., Solanki, K. R., & Mehta, C. R. 2021. An integrated inter- and intra row weeding system for row crops. Crop Protection, 145.
Deo, M. M., Verma, P., Praharaj, C. S., Prakash, O., & Kumar, N. 2023. Physical and engineering properties of chickpea (Cicer arietnum L.) for planter design. Journal of Food Legumes 36(1): 66–71.
Depenbusch, L., Farnworth, C. R., Schreinemachers, P., Myint, T., Islam, M. M., Kundu, N. D., Myint, T., San, A. M., Jahan, R., & Nair, R. M. 2021. When machines take the beans: Ex-ante socioeconomic impact evaluation of mechanized harvesting of mungbean in bangladesh and myanmar. Agronomy, 11(5).
Dogra, B., & Singh, N. K. 2018. Efficient machineries for harvesting and threshing pulse crops. In D. Khare, S. B. Nahatkar, A. K. Shrivastava, & A. K. Jha (Eds.), Farm Mechanization for Production (pp. 46–56). Indian Books and Periodicals.
Dousthaghi, M. H., Minaei, S., & Khoshtaghaza, M. H. 2022. Computational fluid dynamics and analytical modeling for predicting effects of airflow temperature and relative humidity on the terminal velocity of agricultural granular materials. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 45(2).
Gaur, P. M., Jukanti, A. K., Srinivasan, S., & Gowda, C. L. L. 2012. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). In D. N. Bharadwaj (Ed.), In Breeding of Field Crops (pp. 165– 194). Agrobios: Jodhpur, India.
Gentry, J., Silburn, C., Mcintosh, P., Hagan, J., & O’connor, R. 2023. Desiccating mungbeans-is windrowing an alternative?
Gharakhani, H., Alimardani, R., & Jafari, A. 2017. Design a new cutter-bar mechanism with flexible blades and its evaluation on harvesting of lentil. Engineering in Agriculture, Environment and Food, 10(3): 198–207.
Gogoi, N., Baruah, K. K., & Meena, R. S. 2018. Grain Legumes: Impact on Soil Health and Agroecosystem. In Legumes for Soil Health and Sustainable Management (pp. 511–539). Springer Singapore.
Golpira, H. 2015. Development of stripper harvesting technology for chickpeas.
Golpira, H., Rovira-Mas, F., Golpira, H., & Saiz-Rubio, V. 2021. Mathematical model-based redesign of chickpea harvester reel. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 19(1): 1–9.
Golpira, H., Tavakoli, T., & Baerdemaeker, J. D. 2013. Design and development of a chickpea stripper harvester. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 11(4): 929–934.
Gowda, C. L., Srinivasan, S., Gaur, P. M., & Saxena, K. B. 2013. Enhancing the Productivity and Production of Pulses in India (P. K. Shetty, S. Ayyappan, & M. S. Swaminathan, Eds.; p. 324). National Institute of Advanced Studies; Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Håkansson, I., Arvidsson, J., & Rydberg, T. 2011. Effects of seedbed properties on crop emergence: 2. effects of aggregate size, sowing depth and initial water content under dry weather conditions. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B: Soil and Plant Science, 61(5): 469–479.
Hazra, K. K., & Basu, P. S. 2023. Pulses. In Trajectory of 75 years of Indian Agriculture after Independence (pp. 189–230). Springer Nature Singapore.
Hirai, Y., Schrock, M. D., Maski, D., Taylor, R. K., & Hilton, S. 2005. Loss Evaluation of Soybean Harvesting on Four Types of Headers.
Idris, A. A., Muhieldeen, O. A., & Dafalla Elfadil, A. 2025. Performance Evaluation of Tractor Mounted Inter Row Weeder Provided with Three Different Types of Weeding Tools on Okra Production. Nile Journal for Agricultural Sciences, 10(1): 1–16.
Jat, M. L., Singh, Y., Gill, G., Sidhu, H. S., Aryal, J. P., Stirling, C., & Gerard, B. 2015. Laser-Assisted Precision Land Leveling Impacts in Irrigated Intensive Production Systems of South Asia. In Advances in soil science (pp. 323–352).
Jog, M. S., & Agashe, S. D. 2025. Development of a Weeding Agrobot Prototype for Inter-row and Intra row Weeding Development of a Weeding Agrobot Prototype for Inter-row and Intra-row Weeding. Agricultural Science Digest - A Research Journal, Of.
Jumrani, J. 2025. Navigating Food Security and Nutritional Challenges. In R. Timilsina, S. Pandey, D. Rahut, & K. Seetha Ram (Eds.), Navigating Food Security and Nutritional Challenges. Asian Development Bank Institute.
Kailashkumar, B. 2019. Study of Different Kinds of Threshers & Factors Influencing threshing of Crops: A Review. In IJSRD-International Journal for Scientific Nalawade et al. : Mechanization of Pulse Crops: Engineering Challenges, Technological Advances, and 125 Opportunities for Yield Gap Reduction Research & Development| (Vol. 6). www.ijsrd.com
Kanatas, P. J., & Gazoulis, I. 2022. The integration of increased seeding rates, mechanical weed control and herbicide application for weed management in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Phytoparasitica, 50(1): 255–267.
Khan, A. 2019. Tillage and Crop Production. In Agronomic Crops (pp. 115–129). Springer Singapore.
Kiliç*, H., Türk, Z., & Gürsoy, S. 2015. Effect of tillage and crop residues management on lentil (Lens culinaris L.) yield, some yield components and weed density in rainfed areas of Turkey. Legume Research - An International Journal, 38(6): 781-790.
Konak, M., Çarman, K., & Aydin, C. 2002. Physical properties of chick pea seeds. Biosystems Engineering, 82(1), 73–78.
Kumar, D., Dogra, B., Dogra, R., Singh, I., & Manes, G. S. 2019. Optimization of operational parameters for mechanised harvesting of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan) with combine harvester. Legume Research, 42(2): 198–204.
Kumar, J., Choudhary, A. K., Gupta, D. Sen, & Kumar, S. 2019. Towards exploitation of adaptive traits for climate-resilient smart pulses. In International Journal of Molecular Sciences (Vol. 20, Issue 12). MDPI AG.
Kumar, M., & Kumari, S. 2022. Field evaluation of Walking Behind Self-Propelled Vertical Conveyor Reaper-cum Windrower for harvesting losses in green gram crop. Pantnagar Journal of Research, 20(3): 507–511.
Kumar, R., Devi, M. T., Boruah, M., Kumar, B., Govindasamy, K., Baruah, A., & Ray, S. 2025. Impact of Kharif Pulses in North East India: Yield Gap and Economic Analysis. Legume Research.
Kumar, S., Gopinath, K. A., Sheoran, S., Meena, R. S., Srinivasarao, Ch., Bedwal, S., Jangir, C. K., Mrunalini, K., Jat, R., & Praharaj, C. S. 2023. Pulse-based cropping systems for soil health restoration, resources conservation, and nutritional and environmental security in rainfed agroecosystems. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13.
Kumar, S. P., Tewari, V. K., Mehta, C. R., Nare, B., Chethan, C. R., Chandel, A. K., Pareek, C., & Kumar, S. 2023. Development of Tractor Operated Vertical Axis Rotary Weeder for Inter Row Weed Control. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 54(4).
Kumar, S., Rajaiah, P., Vennela, B., Laxman, B., & Pramod, A. 2024. Development and Performance Evaluation of Microcontroller Operated Planter. Agriculture Association of Textile Chemical and Critical Reviews, 12(2).
Kushwaha, A., & Mehta, C. M. 2023. Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan L.) Based Intercropping System: A Review. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 35(18): 1674–1689. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2023/v35i183443
Kuzbakova, M., Khassanova, G., Oshergina, I., Ten, E., Jatayev, S., Yerzhebayeva, R., Bulatova, K., Khalbayeva, S., Schramm, C., Anderson, P., Sweetman, C., Jenkins, C. L. D., Soole, K. L., & Shavrukov, Y. 2022. Height to first pod: A review of genetic and breeding approaches to improve combine harvesting in legume crops. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13: 948099.
Lamb, J., & Poddar, A. 2008. Grain Legume Hand Book for the Pulse Industry. In Grain Legume Handbook for the Pulse Industry. Grain Legume Hand Book Committee.
Lohan, S. K., Sidhu, H. S., & Singh, M. 2014. Laser Guided Land Leveling and Grading for Precision Farming. In Precision farming: a new approach (pp. 148–158). Astral International Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.
Luo, Y., Li, W., Jiang, P., Tang, K., Liang, Z., & Shi, Y. 2025. Design and testing of a RealSense-based variable spraying control system for field kale. Frontiers in Plant Science 16: 1618159.
Manikandan, A., Blaise, D., Nalayini, P., Nagrare, V. S., & Prasad, Y. G. 2024. Intercropping Legumes with High Density Cotton to Improve the Land Use Efficiencies of Rainfed Vertisols of India. Agricultural Research 2024: 1-2.
Manjunatha, N., Palaiah, P., Ravi, S., Anandkumar, V., & Ahalya, B. N. 2025. Assessment of Chickpea varieties suitable for mechanical harvesting & higher productivity under vertisols of Kalaburgi District. International Journal of Research in Agronomy, 8(7S): 460–462.
Mehta, C. R., Bangale, R. A., Chandel, N. S., & Kumar, M. 2024. Farm Mechanization in India: Status and Way Forward. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America, 54(2).
Mingzhi, C., Laining, Z., Yongpeng, C., Zongguang, & Hu. 2022. Research Progress and Performance Analysis of Air-suction Seed Metering Device in China. OSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science, 15(10), 23–28.
Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare Govt. of India. 2025. Final Estimate of Production of Food Grains for 2024: 25.
Nie, J., Luo, H., Zhou, Y., Li, Q., Qiu, Q., & Zhang, L. 2023. Design and test of a low-loss soybean header based on synchronous profiling. Agriculture (Switzerland), 13(8): 1580.
Nikolay, Z., Nikolay, K., Gao, X., Wei Li, Q., Peng Mi, G., & Xiang Huang, Y. 2022. Design and testing of novel seed miss prevention system for single seed precision metering devices. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 198: 107048.
Nimkar, A., Satish, P. S., Bajirao, G. S., & Ravindra, B. S. 2020. Comparative Study of Rotavator and Power Harrow. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 7(6): 3366-3372.
Nkurikiye, E., Xiao, R., Tilley, M., Siliveru, K., & Li, Y. 2023. Bread-making properties of different pulse flours in composites with refined wheat flour. Journal of Texture Studies, 54(2): 311–322.
OECD/FAO. 2025. Agricultural outlook 2025–2034.
Ogutcen, E., Pandey, A., Khan, M. K., Marques, E., Penmetsa, R. V., Kahraman, A., & Von Wettberg, E. J. B. 2018. Pod shattering: A homologous series of variation underlying domestication and an avenue for crop improvement. Agronomy 8(8): 137.
Otsuka, K., Liu, Y., & Yamauchi, F. 2016. The future of small farms in Asia. Development Policy Review, 34(3), 441–461.
Pargi, S. J., Gupta, P., Balas, P. R., & Bambhaniya, V. U. 2024. Comparison between Manual Harvesting and Mechanical Harvesting. Journal of Scientific Research and Reports, 30(6): 917–934.
Parihar, A. K., Hazra, K. K., Lamichaney, A., Gupta, D. Sen, Kumar, J., Singh, A. K., Das, S. P., Jeberson, M. S., Sofi, P. A., Lone, A. A., Dev, J., Kumar, A., Panwar, R. K., Singh, S., Dikshit, H. K., Aski, M., Jamwal, B. S., Prakash, V., Punia, S. S., … Dixit, G. P. 2025. Adaptive responses of large-seeded lentils across diverse Indian climates. Heliyon, 11(3).
Puri, P. 2024. Protein analysis and digestibility of few pulses consumed in Indore region. International Journal of Biomedical Investigation, 7(1): 40–46.
Qin, W., Li, Y., Qian, C., Fan, Z., Yan, D., Zou, G., Liu, S., Wang, Z., Zang, Y., & Zhang, M. 2025. The Development of an Air Suction Precision Seed Metering Device for Rice Plot Breeding. Agronomy, 15(7).
Quddus, Md. A., Naser, H. M., Siddiky, Md. A., Ali, Md. R., Mondol, A. T. M. A. I., & Islam, Md. A. 2020. Impact of Zero Tillage and Tillage Practice in Chickpea Production. Journal of Agricultural Science, 12(4): 106.
Raheman, H., & Sarkar, P. 2024. Tillage Machinery— Passive, Active and Combination. Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6331- 7.
Raja, K., Alex Albert, V., Venudevan, B., Mohan Kumar, P., & Sasthri, G. 2025. Seed Pelleting Technique for Mechanized Sowing in Green Gram [Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek]. Legume Research, 48(9), 1464–1468.
Rana, D. S., Dass, A., Rajanna, G. A., & Kaur, R. 2016. Biotic and abiotic stress management in pulses. In Indian Journal of Agronomy (Vol. 61).
Raut, G. P., Shelar, V. R., Karjule, A. P., Gagare, K. C., & Parmar, J. N. 2023. Impact of seed moisture content at harvesting and threshing methods on seed quality soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Biological Forum An International Journal, 15(12): 500.
Reddy, B. S., Satyanarayana, R. V., Adake, R., & Anantachar, M. 2012. Performance of Seed Planter Metering Mechanisms under Simulated Conditions. Indian J. Dryland Agric. Res. & Dev, 27(2): 36–42.
Roy, R., Singh, A., & Kang, J. S. 2014. Yield and quality of Chickpea (Cicer Aerietinum) varieties as influenced by different planting techniques. Legume Research, 37(3), 294–299.
Sangani, V. P., & Davara, P. R. 2013. Moisture dependent physical properties of pigeon pea grains. In Int. J. Postharvest Technology and Innovation (Vol. 3, Issue 1).
Semwal, P., Gupta, S., Chahat, Joshi, G., Wahajuddin, M., & Kumar, B. 2025. A Comprehensive Review on Key Chemical Constituents of Indian Pulses and Their Multifaceted Health Benefits in a Global Context. In Legume Science (Vol. 7, Issue 4). John Wiley and Sons Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/leg3.70055.
Senthilkumar, T., Duraisamy, V. M., & Asokan, D. 2012. Evaluation of Power Weeders for Mechanized Weeding in Pulse Crop Cultivation. Madras Agricultural Journal, 99(4–6): 394–396.
Shah, K., Alam, M. S., Nasir, F. E., Qadir, M. U., Haq, I. U., & Khan, M. T. 2022. Design and Performance Evaluation of a Novel Variable Rate Multi-Crop Seed Metering Unit for Precision Agriculture. IEEE Access, 10: 133152–133163.
Singh, D. P., Singh, B. B., & Pratap, A. 2016. Genetic improvement of mungbean and urdbean and their role in enhancing pulse production in India. Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 76(4): 550–567.
Singh, M. K., Kumar, N., Verma, P., & Garg, S. K. 2012. Performance evaluation of mechanical planters for planting of chickpea and pigeonpea. In Journal of Food Legumes (Vol. 25, Issue 2).
Singh, N. P., Mishra, R. K., Bandi, S. M., & Kumar, N. 2023. Advances in pest management in pulses based cropping systems under changing climate. In Integrated Pest Management in Diverse Cropping Systems (1st ed., pp. 259–291). Apple Academic Press.
Singh, U., Gaur, P. M., Chaturvedi, S. K., Hazra, K. K., & Singh, G. 2019. Changing Plant Architecture and Density can Increase Chickpea Productivity and Facilitate for Mechanical Harvesting. International Journal of Plant Production, 13(3): 193–202.
Sinha, H. K. 2020. Challenges in Indian Pulses Industry. National Bulk Handling Corporation Pvt. Ltd.
Snapp, S. S., Jones, R. B., Minja, E. M., Rusike, J., & Silim, S. N. 2003. Pigeon Pea for Africa: A Versatile Vegetable and More. Hortscience, 38(6): 1073–1079.
Solanki, C., Saha, D., & Singh, R. 2019. Moisture dependent physical properties of dehusked unsplitted pigeon pea. Journal of Food Safety and Food Quality,
Nalawade et al. : Mechanization of Pulse Crops: Engineering Challenges, Technological Advances, and 127 Opportunities for Yield Gap Reduction 70: 91–124.
Sowmya, K., Bindhu, J. S., & Pillai, P. S. 2022. Agro ecological Sustainability with Pulses under System of Crop Intensification: A Review. Agricultural Reviews, Of. https://doi.org/10.18805/ag.r-2521.
Sultana, R., Choudhary, A. K., Pal, A. K., Saxena, K. B., Prasad, B. D., & Singh, R. 2014. Abiotic Stresses in Major Pulses: Current Status and Strategies. In Approaches to Plant Stress and their Management (pp. 173–190). Springer India.
Tomashuk, I., Koliadenko, S., & BurdVak, M. 2025. The Impact of Digital Innovations on The Development of Agricultural Business. Baltic Journal of Economic Studies, 11(1): 361–375.
Vance, W. H., Bell, R. W., & Johansen, C. 2024. Physical
Conditions That Limit Chickpea Root Growth and Emergence in Heavy-Textured Soil. Seeds, 3(1): 26–39.
Yadav, L., Advi Rao, S., Shirwal, S., Palled, V., Nageshkumar, T., & Murali, M. 2025. Optimization of seeding performance of a mechatronic seed metering mechanism using integrated CANFIS-MOGA. AgricEngInt: CIGR Journal, 27(4): 126–142.
Zeroual, A., Baidani, A., Abderemane, B. A., Mitache, M., & Idrissi, O. 2024. Genetic variability and genotype by-environment interaction for plant architecture and lodging resistance in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.). Euphytica, 220(11): 163.
Zyla, L. E., Kushwaha, R. L., & Vandenberg, A. 2002. Development of a new crop lifter for direct cut harvesting dry bean. Canadian Biosystems Engineering, 44: 2.9-2.14.
